- Appearance: The appearance of urine should be clear and pale yellow. Cloudy or dark urine may indicate infection, dehydration, or liver issues.
- Colour: Changes in color can indicate dehydration, hematuria, or liver dysfunction. Dark brown or red urine may suggest blood or bilirubin.
- Specific Gravity: Reflects urine concentration. High specific gravity may indicate dehydration, while low specific gravity can indicate kidney dysfunction or overhydration.
- pH: The pH of urine varies depending on diet and metabolic conditions. Alkaline urine may be seen in urinary tract infections (UTIs), while acidic urine may indicate metabolic acidosis.
- Protein: Presence of protein in urine (proteinuria) can indicate kidney disease, especially in conditions like glomerulonephritis or nephrotic syndrome.
- Glucose: Glucosuria (glucose in urine) is indicative of uncontrolled diabetes or kidney dysfunction.
- Ketones: Ketones in urine may suggest diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), fasting, or other metabolic conditions.
- RBCs: Presence of RBCs may indicate glomerulonephritis, urinary tract injury, or infection.
- WBCs/Pus Cells: Increased WBCs suggest infection, such as a UTI or inflammation in the urinary tract.
- Epithelial Cells: Epithelial cells may indicate contamination or urinary tract injury.
- Crystals: Crystals can indicate kidney stones or metabolic disorders. Common types include calcium oxalate, uric acid, and struvite crystals.
- Casts: Casts are formed from proteins and cells in the kidney tubules. The presence of casts (e.g., RBC, WBC, granular) can indicate renal disease.
